ALL ABOUT LEARNING

Learning and problem
1. Understanding Learning
Learning is a process, and an activity that is very fundamental element in the administration of every type and level of education. Thus, many experts are making different definitions of learning, because of differences in point of view.
Under the proposed definition will learn according to some experts, among them:
1. Skinner in Barlow (1985) in his book Educational Psychology: The Teaching Learning Process, learning is a process of adaptation that takes place progressively.
2. Chaplin (1972) in Psychology Dictionary limiting learning with 2 kinds:
a. Learning is the acquisition of behavioral changes are relatively sedentary as a result of training and experience.
b. Learning is the process of obtaining responses as a result of special training.
3. Hintzman (1987) in his book The Psychology of Learning and Memory argues that learning is a change that happens to an organism, human or animal due to the experience that can affect the behavior of the organism.
4. Wittig (1981) in his book Psychology of Learning learning is a relatively permanent change that occurs in all kinds / overall behavior of an organism as a result.
5. Reber (1989) in the Dictionary of Psychology. He said there are two definitions of learning, namely:
a. Learning is a process of gaining knowledge
b. Learning is a change in the relative ability to react as a result of exercise lasting reinforced.
Thus it can be understood that learning process include:
a. Changes are generally settled (relatively permanent)
b. Ability to react (response potentiality)
c. Can be reinforced (Reinforced)
d. Through practice and training (Practice)
2. Factors Affecting the Learning Difficulties
Behavior change is one of the learning objectives, but there are several factors that affect the difficulty in learning. Factors that affect learning difficulties there are 2 kinds, namely:
a. Factors Intern Learning
Internal factors are factors that come from the individuals themselves, such as maturity, intelligence, motivation and interest.
b. External factors Learning
External factors closely related to social or environmental factors the individual concerned. For example, the state of the family, the community, teachers and props used in the school.
a.1 Internal Factors
* Maturity
Because immature mental maturity, we will be unable to teach the concepts of philosophy of science to elementary school students. Provision of certain materials will be accomplished in accordance with our rate of growth and development of the individual or student. Therefore, both physical and spiritual potential needs to be reconsidered maturity.
* Intelligence (IQ)
Success of individuals learn various knowledge determined by the level of intelligence, for example, a science has enough to be studied by an individual in a particular age level. Intelligence of the individual concerned but less support, the knowledge he had learned still will not understand it. Similarly, in other matters, such as the day-to-day chores, such as cooking and making simple toys, in the same level are not all individuals are able to do it well.
* Motivation
Motivasipun determining learning success. Motivation is the drive to do something. The impetus nothing came of the individual concerned and some are coming from outside of the individual concerned, such as the role of parents, friends and teachers.
* Interests
Interest in learning from the individual himself is a very dominant factor in the effects on learning, because if from within the individual does not have the slightest willingness or interest to learn, the lessons they have received the results will be worth it. Automatic lessons are not included at all in his IQ.
b.1 External Factors
* Family Environment
Family environment also determine the success of learning. Economic status, social status, customs and atmosphere encourage families to participate to the success of learning. The family atmosphere is serene and peaceful harmony very supportive family relationships. Relationship between parents and children will be felt for each other and complement. If the child finds it difficult to learn, with a wise and understanding parents give their views and opinions on the settlement of his learning problems.
* Community Environment
Greatly affect the role of the individual in learning. Each pattern of society which may deviate by learning in school will be quickly absorbed into the individual, because the knowledge gained from his experience engaging with the community will be more easily absorbed by the individual rather than the experience of learning at school. So the role of the public will be able to change the behavior of individuals in the learning process.
* Guru
The role of teachers can affect learning. Can be seen from the way teachers teach to the students, it was decisive in the success of learning. Attitude and personality of the teacher, the knowledge base in education, mastery of teaching techniques, and the ability to dive into the mind of each individual student is very important. Therefore, the teacher as a motivator, teacher as facilitator, the teacher as an innovator, and the teacher as a conductor individual student issues, needs to be a reference for ongoing educational process.
* Shape Tool Lesson
Tools can be a form of lessons instead of hitting the books, lessons, props, writing tools, and so on. Difficult to obtain or have learning tools directly or indirectly affect students' success in learning. Students will likely succeed if supported by tools appropriate lessons. The lesson tools will support the process of understanding the child. For example, through the simple practice of the subject matter they have learned.
* Learning Opportunities
Learning opportunities is a factor that is being pursued through a Compulsory Government (Fair) 9 Year Basic Education announced that starting school year 1994/1995. Naturally, the declaration is an alternative to providing the opportunity for the students, especially for those whose parents are less able berekonomi.
A child who does not have the opportunity to learn as economically disadvantaged, but on the other hand the child berintelegensi high, then he will find obstacles in his ideals aspirations intact. Although the motivation is so high to achieve a desired goal, but if it is not supported by sufficient economic, it will be a relatively serious obstacles. Vice versa, a child of the family who are able, have a high intelligence, attends favourit, and supported by the infrastructure department, may not be able to learn well, because there are several factors that can influence the child to learn well, such as motivation, harmonious family environment, distance from home to school is quite far away so tiring, special attention from classroom teachers, and other things that allow the student unsuccessful.
3. How to Cope with Learning Difficulties
Some ways to overcome difficulties in learning can be done by learning effective and efficient. This way is problematic that needs serious attention. Parents and Teachers class often gives advice to the students to study hard because the base of the diligent is smart. Smart people will be able to develop themselves in accordance with the times which is too complex.
Here are some alternatives in learning difficulties:
1. Classroom Observation
At this stage, classroom observation can help reduce the level of difficulty in learning, such as how to check the physical condition of the classroom learning activities, quite comfortable, fresh, healthy and alive or not. If the class atmosphere is very comfortable, quiet and healthy, then it all can motivate students to learn more passion again.
2. Equipment inspection Sense
In this case it can be focused on specific student health level of the sensory organs. Attempted at least once a month the school doing a test or medical examination at the health center / doctor, because the level of good health can support a good lesson anyway. Therefore, the importance of the sensory organs can stimulate learning materials directly to the individual.
3. Engineering Main Role
Here, a teacher can visit the home of a disciple. There, a teacher can freely see, pay attention to the following students all around him. Here the teacher can directly conduct interviews with the parents about the child's personality, family, the economy, employment and others. Also, the teacher can see the state of the house, the condition and the situation with the public directly.
4. Diagnostic Tests Skills / IQ Test / Psycho
In this case the teacher can determine the extent of a person's IQ can be viewed by way of answering the questions of practical and simple. With psychological exercises can be taken multiple student personalities practical value in terms of basic, logic and one's privacy.
5. Compiling Program Improvement
The preparation program shall begin in terms of teacher first. A teacher should be a konsevator, transmitters, transformers, and organizers. Complete the next few props or other tools that support better teaching, as to the completeness-completeness of the more complex, belajarpun motivation will be easily obtained by the students.
Let all the fully realized by the teachers so that there are no longer obstacles and barriers that can affect learning. In addition, the level of discipline that is applied in a school can support the goodness in the process of learning. Discipline in the study will be able to motivate students' learning activities.

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Unknown GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Erikson's theory

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) says that there are eight stages of development unfolds when we transcend the cycle of life. Each stage consists of typical development tasks and prioritize individuals with a crisis that must be faced. For Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe, but a turning point and an increase in the potential for increased susceptibility.The more successful the individual to overcome the crisis, they will be more healthy development. Here are a few stages of development according to Erik Erikson's crisis:
Trust and distrust (trust versus mistrust)Is the first stage of psychosocial experienced in the first year of life. An uncomfortable feeling of confidence physically demanding and a small amount of fear and anxiety about the future. Confidence in infancy determines the hope that the world would be a better place to live and fun.Autonomy with a sense of shame and doubt (autonomy versus shame and doubt)The second is the stage of development that takes place in infancy and just started running (1-3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is at will. They realize their willingness to think independently and their autonomy. If the baby is likely to be limited so they will tend to develop a sense of shame and doubt.Initiative and guilt (initiative versus guilt)A third phase that lasted for school years. When they entered the world of school they are more challenged than when it was a baby. Active children are expected to meet this challenge with a sense of responsibility for their behavior, their toys, and their pets. Children responsible for promoting the initiative. However, guilt can arise, if the child is not given the confidence and made them very anxious.Diligent and low self-esteem (industry versus inferiority)Took place during the years of elementary school. No other problems were more enthusiastic than at the end of the initial period of the children of imagination. When children enter elementary school years, they redirect their energies on the acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills. Dangerous at this stage is feeling incompetent and unproductive.Identity and identity confusion (identity versus identity confusion)The fifth stage is experienced by individuals during the years of adolescence. At this stage they are confronted by the search for who they are, how they are later, and where they will lead the future. One important dimension is the exploration of alternative options for the role. Career assessment is important. Parents should allow older children to explore many roles and many roads. If the child explore various roles and find positive role then he will achieve a positive identity. If the parent refuses adolescent identity while teenagers do not know many roles and also explained about the positive future he will experience identity confusion.Intimacy and isolation (intimacy versus isolation)The sixth stage is experienced in the early days of adulthood. At this time people faced the task of forming intimate relationships with the development of others. When young children form healthy friendships and intimate relationships are intimate with others, intimacy will be achieved, if not, isolation will occur.Wake up and stop (generality versus stagnation)Seventh stage of growth experienced during mid-adulthood. The main problem is helping young people to develop and lead a useful life (generality). Feeling of not doing anything to help the next generation is the stagnationIntegrity and disappointment (integrity versus despair)Experienced during the eighth stage of adolescence. In the last years of life, we look back and evaluate what we have done for a living. If he has done something good in a past life then integrity is achieved. Conversely, if he considers long ago life in a negative way then it will tend to feel guilty and disappointed.

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Unknown Article, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

INFLASI

Inflation is a process of rising prices in general and constantly associated with the market mechanism that can be caused by various factors. Terebut factors, among others, increased consumption, excess liquidity in the market that triggered the consumption or even speculation, as well as due to the lack of launch distribution of goods. In other words, inflation is also a decline in the value of the currency continuously. Inflation is the process of an event, not a higher or lower price level. That is, the price level is considered high inflation does not necessarily indicate. Inflation is an indicator to see the rate of change, and is considered to occur if the price increase takes place continuously and mutually influence affect.
Inflation can be caused by two things, namely pull demand (excess liquidity / currency / medium of exchange) and the second is the insistence of production and distribution (including the lack of production and lack of distribution). For more affected first because of the role of the state in monetary policy (Central Bank), while the second is more affected because of the role of the state in which the policy executor in this case held by the Government, such as fiscal (taxation / levies / incentives / disincentives), infrastructure development policy , regulation.
Based on its origin, inflation can be classified into two, namely inflation from inflation in the country and overseas. Inflation comes from the country to be the case due to budget deficits financed by printing new money and market failures that result in food prices to be expensive. Meanwhile, inflation from abroad is inflation that occurs as a result of rising prices of imported goods. This could happen due to the cost of producing goods overseas height or an increase in import tariffs of goods.
Inflation can also be divided based on the amount of coverage of the effect on prices. If the price increase happens only with one or two specific items, inflation is called inflation closed (Closed Inflation). However, if the price increases occurred in all goods in general, inflation is referred to as an open inflation (Open Inflation). Whereas if inflation so great that attacks all the time constantly changing prices and increased so that people can not hold money longer value for money continues to decline due to so-called runaway inflation (hyperinflation).
Based on the severity of inflation also can be distinguished:
Mild inflation (less than 10% / year)
Inflation is moderate (between 10% to 30% / year)
Inflation weight (between 30% to 100% / year)
Hyperinflation (over 100% / year)
Inflation has both positive and negative effects depending on whether or not severe inflation. If inflation is mild, it has a positive effect in terms of stimulating the economy could be better, which is to increase the national income and get people excited to work, save and invest. Conversely, in a period of severe inflation, which in the event of uncontrolled inflation (hyperinflation), the state of the economy into chaos and felt sluggish economy. People become excited about work, savings, or investments and production as prices rise rapidly. The fixed income earners such as civil servants or private employees, and the workers will also be overwhelmed bore and offset the price so that their lives are wasting away and fell from time to time.
Here is the positive impact of inflation on the economy
1. Circulation / turnover faster.
2. Production of goods increases, as employers increase profits.
3. Employment opportunities increase, due to additional investment.
4. Nominal income increases, but the real reduced, because kenaikanpendapatan small.
The negative impact of inflation on the economy
1. Prices of goods and services rose.
2. Values ​​and beliefs about money going down or reduced.
3. Raises speculation measures.
4. Many development projects stalled or abandoned.
5. Reduced public saving awareness.
Here are the parties who benefit from inflation:
a. The entrepreneur, who at the time before inflation, already has stock / stock production of goods ready for sale in large quantities.
b. The traders, who used the occasion plays inflation item price. How it is used to raise the price, because they want to profit / benefit.
c. The speculators, the persons or entities who held speculation, hoarding of goods by as much as possible before the onset of inflation, and sell it back on when inflation occurs, resulting in the increase of their prices are very favorable.
d. The borrower, since the loan was taken before the prices of goods go up, so that its real value is higher than after inflation occurs, but the borrower pay back the equipment in accordance with an agreement made before the inflation. For example, mortgage credit decision before inflation resulting BTN prices of building materials and home mortgage BTN rose, while the number of installments to be paid to the BTN still does not come raised.
While the aggrieved parties among others:
a. The consumer, having to pay higher prices, so that goods obtained less when compared to the prior occurrence of inflation.
b. Those whose income is fixed, as with a regular income, rising prices of goods and services, resulting in the amount of goods and services can be purchased a little more, so that real income is reduced, while the increase in income, or income in the event of inflation can hardly be expected.
c. The contractor or contractors, because they have to expend additional fee to cover expenses resulting from inflation and result in reduced benefits arising from the project is done.
d. The lender / creditor, because the real value of the loan has been granted become smaller as a result of inflation. For example, before inflation, borrowing Rp 500.000,00 = 25 grams of gold, after inflation = 20 grams of gold.
e. Savers, because when inflation interest earned from savings felt smaller when compared to the price increases that occurred. In addition, due to rising prices of goods and services, the value of the saved money to lower / down, when compared to before the inflation.
But the government also has certain ways to tackle inflation. These methods include:
1. Monetary Policy
Diskoto Politics (Political money is tight): bank raised interest rates so that the money supply can be reduced.
Open market policy: the central bank sells bonds or securities to the capital market to absorb money from the public and the central bank sells securities to suppress growth of the money supply so that the money supply can be reduced and the rate of inflation may be lower.
Improved cash ratio: Raise cash reserves in the bank so that the amount of money banks can lend to customers / public to be reduced. This means it can reduce the amount of money in circulation.
2. Fiscal Policy
Organize receipts and expenditures. Government spending that does not add to the budget deficit is not.
Raise taxes. By raising taxes, consumers will reduce their consumption as part of their income to pay taxes.
3. Non Monetary Policy
Encourage employers to raise their production.
Pressing the wage rate.
Government oversight and at the same price set maximum prices.
The government made the distribution directly.
Poverty is severe inflation (hyper inflation) reached by way of doing sneering (cutting of the currency). Senering This has been done by the government in the 1960's when inflation reached 650%. The government cut the value of the currency denominations of Rp. 1000.00 to Rp. 1.00.
Policies related to output. The increase in output can reduce the rate of inflation. The increase in the number of outputs can be achieved for example by reduction of import duty policy that imports tend to increase. Increasing the number of goods in the country tends to lower the price.
Pricing policies and indexing. This is done by determining the ceiling price.
4. Real Sector Policies
Government to stimulate banks to give more specific credit to MSMEs (Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises). Examples BRI bank launched this year as Microyear.
Pressing the flow of imported goods by raising taxes.
Stimulate people to use domestic products.
While inflation could be positive or negative, on the Indonesian economy, but it would be nice if the economic situation in Indonesia remains stable. So no one can get double benefits, while others experienced economic slump. Inflation prevention should be done as soon as possible before the bad inflation. Required skills in observing the government's economic conditions that occur at this time. Coupled with the lifestyle of the people of Indonesia tend consumptive. Not infrequently it lead to inflation. Hopefully someday Indonesia's economy could be better and will not cause gaps community.
http://wartawarga.gunadarma.ac.id/2011/03/httptwentytwopm-wordpress-com/
Since the advent of money as a medium of exchange authorized the presence of money has a crucial role in every human life. This can be proven from how every human being in need of money as a medium of exchange for goods and services required to fulfill his life, as an example, is how we need the money to finance health care, insurance, education, entertainment fulfilling the needs of everyday life and examples others can be found in everyday behavior. Apart from the need for money then on the other hand there are other aspects of the money itself that is inflation.
Inflation is defined as an increase in the overall prices of goods and is usually measured by the consumer price index. From the definition of the concept of inflation is reflected in that only occur when there is increase in goods as a whole and not just some stuff just so that if there is inflation, the value of the purchasing power of money will be drained owned or reduced because of rising prices of goods. Based on previous understanding crystallized that inflation has negative aspects and needs to be maintained at a certain level (2% -3%), but also has the benefit of actual inflation (oportunity) seen from the perspective of international finance as it relates or related to or a negative surplus of the balance of trade so writing This purpose is to explore the positive and negative inflation on the trade balance.
One item of the balance of payments is heading the trade balance comprising two subpost ie exports and imports. Further that the export and import element is an element that is crucial for the calculation of GDP (gross national product). Inflation can largely resulting from excess demand over supply or caused by the increase in the cost of the encouragement. But regardless of the cause of inflation is contained implicitly meaning that inflation is a challenge and an opportunity, which is a challenge because it takes the help of the government by playing two instruments, namely monetary policy, by raising the rank of interest and withdraw the money supply to the hands of the people so that it will be an adjustment price (invisible hand) and fiscal policy is to raise taxes to reduce revenue and profit as well as going on the invisible hand, while saying the opportunity as it relates to favorable exchange rates and exports.
As said at the beginning that inflation has a negative aspect as it will deplete the purchasing power of money owned so much allows people to save money on financial institutions because the government will respond by raising interest rates and favorable customer manabung financial institutions. Another aspect of inflation that would lead to fluctuations in exchange rates and stock prices overall. Or in other words that inflation will lead to increased corporate costs (direct material costs, direct labor costs and overhead costs) that affect the company's operating profit and if a company has a high leverage it will drain a net profit after tax. With rising costs, the company will then automatically raise the price of products and services to maintain its profits and if persists in the short and long term it will increase the probability the buyer to move to a competitor and this information will be circulated widely and affect investor perception that the firm's current performance and outlook is not good so it will respond by releasing shares held and there was a correction in the stock price.

Further worsening the perception that the investors and affect a particular stock index (JCI), the decline will affect the perception of foreign investors about the prospects of the company's performance in the future and the impact on the action release domestic company stocks and the rupiah exchange from the sale of shares with dollars and lead to increased demand for the dollar and ended the strengthening dollar and weakening rupiah. But despite some negative effect of inflation, the existence of inflation also has a chance if they can be put to good use and as stated earlier the chances of inflation is closely related to aspects of export and import.
Reasoning positive impact on exports and imports inflation occurs because when the increase in the price of goods to be exported then the domestic currency tends to depreciate so that the price of goods for export tend to be cheaper, but it requires several conditions must be met: (1) input costs to produce these goods have a low proportion of imports or production inputs obtained from a domestic and a few are derived from imports, (2) the current exchange rate shocks as inflation then companies have a fleet of good marketing and sales . To clarify the understanding of these two terms is then presented as an example below.
"Initial conditions before the shock rate the selling price of goods A of Rp5000 per product rate Rp5000 / $ and if there rupiah depreciation to Rp10000 / $ and if the company is able to maintain the selling price Rp5000 the selling price of the dollar change of $ 1 per product to $ 0.5 per product. This example looks simple but when these two conditions are met then the company will not experience increases in costs that affect operating profit and sales force and marketing still exist then the demand can still be obtained and profitable profits to be obtained ".
Examples and explanations in the previous section looks simple because it is excluding taxes and other relevant costs into the analysis, but apart from that it is still there because of its relevance as it is known that the cost element has a vital role in acquiring a profitable sale in the condition that the company inflasipun companies could still exist as long as the company does not have a dependency on imported inputs or raw materials but instead received input or raw materials from domestic and to achieve this it is necessary to support the government specially for the proper management focus and true will and support of all domestic agricultural institutions and communities to optimize domestic agriculture and long-term impact on the competitive advantage of the Indonesian state.

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Unknown Article, Inflasi

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