ALL ABOUT LEARNING

Learning and problem
1. Understanding Learning
Learning is a process, and an activity that is very fundamental element in the administration of every type and level of education. Thus, many experts are making different definitions of learning, because of differences in point of view.
Under the proposed definition will learn according to some experts, among them:
1. Skinner in Barlow (1985) in his book Educational Psychology: The Teaching Learning Process, learning is a process of adaptation that takes place progressively.
2. Chaplin (1972) in Psychology Dictionary limiting learning with 2 kinds:
a. Learning is the acquisition of behavioral changes are relatively sedentary as a result of training and experience.
b. Learning is the process of obtaining responses as a result of special training.
3. Hintzman (1987) in his book The Psychology of Learning and Memory argues that learning is a change that happens to an organism, human or animal due to the experience that can affect the behavior of the organism.
4. Wittig (1981) in his book Psychology of Learning learning is a relatively permanent change that occurs in all kinds / overall behavior of an organism as a result.
5. Reber (1989) in the Dictionary of Psychology. He said there are two definitions of learning, namely:
a. Learning is a process of gaining knowledge
b. Learning is a change in the relative ability to react as a result of exercise lasting reinforced.
Thus it can be understood that learning process include:
a. Changes are generally settled (relatively permanent)
b. Ability to react (response potentiality)
c. Can be reinforced (Reinforced)
d. Through practice and training (Practice)
2. Factors Affecting the Learning Difficulties
Behavior change is one of the learning objectives, but there are several factors that affect the difficulty in learning. Factors that affect learning difficulties there are 2 kinds, namely:
a. Factors Intern Learning
Internal factors are factors that come from the individuals themselves, such as maturity, intelligence, motivation and interest.
b. External factors Learning
External factors closely related to social or environmental factors the individual concerned. For example, the state of the family, the community, teachers and props used in the school.
a.1 Internal Factors
* Maturity
Because immature mental maturity, we will be unable to teach the concepts of philosophy of science to elementary school students. Provision of certain materials will be accomplished in accordance with our rate of growth and development of the individual or student. Therefore, both physical and spiritual potential needs to be reconsidered maturity.
* Intelligence (IQ)
Success of individuals learn various knowledge determined by the level of intelligence, for example, a science has enough to be studied by an individual in a particular age level. Intelligence of the individual concerned but less support, the knowledge he had learned still will not understand it. Similarly, in other matters, such as the day-to-day chores, such as cooking and making simple toys, in the same level are not all individuals are able to do it well.
* Motivation
Motivasipun determining learning success. Motivation is the drive to do something. The impetus nothing came of the individual concerned and some are coming from outside of the individual concerned, such as the role of parents, friends and teachers.
* Interests
Interest in learning from the individual himself is a very dominant factor in the effects on learning, because if from within the individual does not have the slightest willingness or interest to learn, the lessons they have received the results will be worth it. Automatic lessons are not included at all in his IQ.
b.1 External Factors
* Family Environment
Family environment also determine the success of learning. Economic status, social status, customs and atmosphere encourage families to participate to the success of learning. The family atmosphere is serene and peaceful harmony very supportive family relationships. Relationship between parents and children will be felt for each other and complement. If the child finds it difficult to learn, with a wise and understanding parents give their views and opinions on the settlement of his learning problems.
* Community Environment
Greatly affect the role of the individual in learning. Each pattern of society which may deviate by learning in school will be quickly absorbed into the individual, because the knowledge gained from his experience engaging with the community will be more easily absorbed by the individual rather than the experience of learning at school. So the role of the public will be able to change the behavior of individuals in the learning process.
* Guru
The role of teachers can affect learning. Can be seen from the way teachers teach to the students, it was decisive in the success of learning. Attitude and personality of the teacher, the knowledge base in education, mastery of teaching techniques, and the ability to dive into the mind of each individual student is very important. Therefore, the teacher as a motivator, teacher as facilitator, the teacher as an innovator, and the teacher as a conductor individual student issues, needs to be a reference for ongoing educational process.
* Shape Tool Lesson
Tools can be a form of lessons instead of hitting the books, lessons, props, writing tools, and so on. Difficult to obtain or have learning tools directly or indirectly affect students' success in learning. Students will likely succeed if supported by tools appropriate lessons. The lesson tools will support the process of understanding the child. For example, through the simple practice of the subject matter they have learned.
* Learning Opportunities
Learning opportunities is a factor that is being pursued through a Compulsory Government (Fair) 9 Year Basic Education announced that starting school year 1994/1995. Naturally, the declaration is an alternative to providing the opportunity for the students, especially for those whose parents are less able berekonomi.
A child who does not have the opportunity to learn as economically disadvantaged, but on the other hand the child berintelegensi high, then he will find obstacles in his ideals aspirations intact. Although the motivation is so high to achieve a desired goal, but if it is not supported by sufficient economic, it will be a relatively serious obstacles. Vice versa, a child of the family who are able, have a high intelligence, attends favourit, and supported by the infrastructure department, may not be able to learn well, because there are several factors that can influence the child to learn well, such as motivation, harmonious family environment, distance from home to school is quite far away so tiring, special attention from classroom teachers, and other things that allow the student unsuccessful.
3. How to Cope with Learning Difficulties
Some ways to overcome difficulties in learning can be done by learning effective and efficient. This way is problematic that needs serious attention. Parents and Teachers class often gives advice to the students to study hard because the base of the diligent is smart. Smart people will be able to develop themselves in accordance with the times which is too complex.
Here are some alternatives in learning difficulties:
1. Classroom Observation
At this stage, classroom observation can help reduce the level of difficulty in learning, such as how to check the physical condition of the classroom learning activities, quite comfortable, fresh, healthy and alive or not. If the class atmosphere is very comfortable, quiet and healthy, then it all can motivate students to learn more passion again.
2. Equipment inspection Sense
In this case it can be focused on specific student health level of the sensory organs. Attempted at least once a month the school doing a test or medical examination at the health center / doctor, because the level of good health can support a good lesson anyway. Therefore, the importance of the sensory organs can stimulate learning materials directly to the individual.
3. Engineering Main Role
Here, a teacher can visit the home of a disciple. There, a teacher can freely see, pay attention to the following students all around him. Here the teacher can directly conduct interviews with the parents about the child's personality, family, the economy, employment and others. Also, the teacher can see the state of the house, the condition and the situation with the public directly.
4. Diagnostic Tests Skills / IQ Test / Psycho
In this case the teacher can determine the extent of a person's IQ can be viewed by way of answering the questions of practical and simple. With psychological exercises can be taken multiple student personalities practical value in terms of basic, logic and one's privacy.
5. Compiling Program Improvement
The preparation program shall begin in terms of teacher first. A teacher should be a konsevator, transmitters, transformers, and organizers. Complete the next few props or other tools that support better teaching, as to the completeness-completeness of the more complex, belajarpun motivation will be easily obtained by the students.
Let all the fully realized by the teachers so that there are no longer obstacles and barriers that can affect learning. In addition, the level of discipline that is applied in a school can support the goodness in the process of learning. Discipline in the study will be able to motivate students' learning activities.

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Unknown GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Erikson's theory

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) says that there are eight stages of development unfolds when we transcend the cycle of life. Each stage consists of typical development tasks and prioritize individuals with a crisis that must be faced. For Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe, but a turning point and an increase in the potential for increased susceptibility.The more successful the individual to overcome the crisis, they will be more healthy development. Here are a few stages of development according to Erik Erikson's crisis:
Trust and distrust (trust versus mistrust)Is the first stage of psychosocial experienced in the first year of life. An uncomfortable feeling of confidence physically demanding and a small amount of fear and anxiety about the future. Confidence in infancy determines the hope that the world would be a better place to live and fun.Autonomy with a sense of shame and doubt (autonomy versus shame and doubt)The second is the stage of development that takes place in infancy and just started running (1-3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is at will. They realize their willingness to think independently and their autonomy. If the baby is likely to be limited so they will tend to develop a sense of shame and doubt.Initiative and guilt (initiative versus guilt)A third phase that lasted for school years. When they entered the world of school they are more challenged than when it was a baby. Active children are expected to meet this challenge with a sense of responsibility for their behavior, their toys, and their pets. Children responsible for promoting the initiative. However, guilt can arise, if the child is not given the confidence and made them very anxious.Diligent and low self-esteem (industry versus inferiority)Took place during the years of elementary school. No other problems were more enthusiastic than at the end of the initial period of the children of imagination. When children enter elementary school years, they redirect their energies on the acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills. Dangerous at this stage is feeling incompetent and unproductive.Identity and identity confusion (identity versus identity confusion)The fifth stage is experienced by individuals during the years of adolescence. At this stage they are confronted by the search for who they are, how they are later, and where they will lead the future. One important dimension is the exploration of alternative options for the role. Career assessment is important. Parents should allow older children to explore many roles and many roads. If the child explore various roles and find positive role then he will achieve a positive identity. If the parent refuses adolescent identity while teenagers do not know many roles and also explained about the positive future he will experience identity confusion.Intimacy and isolation (intimacy versus isolation)The sixth stage is experienced in the early days of adulthood. At this time people faced the task of forming intimate relationships with the development of others. When young children form healthy friendships and intimate relationships are intimate with others, intimacy will be achieved, if not, isolation will occur.Wake up and stop (generality versus stagnation)Seventh stage of growth experienced during mid-adulthood. The main problem is helping young people to develop and lead a useful life (generality). Feeling of not doing anything to help the next generation is the stagnationIntegrity and disappointment (integrity versus despair)Experienced during the eighth stage of adolescence. In the last years of life, we look back and evaluate what we have done for a living. If he has done something good in a past life then integrity is achieved. Conversely, if he considers long ago life in a negative way then it will tend to feel guilty and disappointed.

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Unknown Article, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

INFLASI

Inflation is a process of rising prices in general and constantly associated with the market mechanism that can be caused by various factors. Terebut factors, among others, increased consumption, excess liquidity in the market that triggered the consumption or even speculation, as well as due to the lack of launch distribution of goods. In other words, inflation is also a decline in the value of the currency continuously. Inflation is the process of an event, not a higher or lower price level. That is, the price level is considered high inflation does not necessarily indicate. Inflation is an indicator to see the rate of change, and is considered to occur if the price increase takes place continuously and mutually influence affect.
Inflation can be caused by two things, namely pull demand (excess liquidity / currency / medium of exchange) and the second is the insistence of production and distribution (including the lack of production and lack of distribution). For more affected first because of the role of the state in monetary policy (Central Bank), while the second is more affected because of the role of the state in which the policy executor in this case held by the Government, such as fiscal (taxation / levies / incentives / disincentives), infrastructure development policy , regulation.
Based on its origin, inflation can be classified into two, namely inflation from inflation in the country and overseas. Inflation comes from the country to be the case due to budget deficits financed by printing new money and market failures that result in food prices to be expensive. Meanwhile, inflation from abroad is inflation that occurs as a result of rising prices of imported goods. This could happen due to the cost of producing goods overseas height or an increase in import tariffs of goods.
Inflation can also be divided based on the amount of coverage of the effect on prices. If the price increase happens only with one or two specific items, inflation is called inflation closed (Closed Inflation). However, if the price increases occurred in all goods in general, inflation is referred to as an open inflation (Open Inflation). Whereas if inflation so great that attacks all the time constantly changing prices and increased so that people can not hold money longer value for money continues to decline due to so-called runaway inflation (hyperinflation).
Based on the severity of inflation also can be distinguished:
Mild inflation (less than 10% / year)
Inflation is moderate (between 10% to 30% / year)
Inflation weight (between 30% to 100% / year)
Hyperinflation (over 100% / year)
Inflation has both positive and negative effects depending on whether or not severe inflation. If inflation is mild, it has a positive effect in terms of stimulating the economy could be better, which is to increase the national income and get people excited to work, save and invest. Conversely, in a period of severe inflation, which in the event of uncontrolled inflation (hyperinflation), the state of the economy into chaos and felt sluggish economy. People become excited about work, savings, or investments and production as prices rise rapidly. The fixed income earners such as civil servants or private employees, and the workers will also be overwhelmed bore and offset the price so that their lives are wasting away and fell from time to time.
Here is the positive impact of inflation on the economy
1. Circulation / turnover faster.
2. Production of goods increases, as employers increase profits.
3. Employment opportunities increase, due to additional investment.
4. Nominal income increases, but the real reduced, because kenaikanpendapatan small.
The negative impact of inflation on the economy
1. Prices of goods and services rose.
2. Values ​​and beliefs about money going down or reduced.
3. Raises speculation measures.
4. Many development projects stalled or abandoned.
5. Reduced public saving awareness.
Here are the parties who benefit from inflation:
a. The entrepreneur, who at the time before inflation, already has stock / stock production of goods ready for sale in large quantities.
b. The traders, who used the occasion plays inflation item price. How it is used to raise the price, because they want to profit / benefit.
c. The speculators, the persons or entities who held speculation, hoarding of goods by as much as possible before the onset of inflation, and sell it back on when inflation occurs, resulting in the increase of their prices are very favorable.
d. The borrower, since the loan was taken before the prices of goods go up, so that its real value is higher than after inflation occurs, but the borrower pay back the equipment in accordance with an agreement made before the inflation. For example, mortgage credit decision before inflation resulting BTN prices of building materials and home mortgage BTN rose, while the number of installments to be paid to the BTN still does not come raised.
While the aggrieved parties among others:
a. The consumer, having to pay higher prices, so that goods obtained less when compared to the prior occurrence of inflation.
b. Those whose income is fixed, as with a regular income, rising prices of goods and services, resulting in the amount of goods and services can be purchased a little more, so that real income is reduced, while the increase in income, or income in the event of inflation can hardly be expected.
c. The contractor or contractors, because they have to expend additional fee to cover expenses resulting from inflation and result in reduced benefits arising from the project is done.
d. The lender / creditor, because the real value of the loan has been granted become smaller as a result of inflation. For example, before inflation, borrowing Rp 500.000,00 = 25 grams of gold, after inflation = 20 grams of gold.
e. Savers, because when inflation interest earned from savings felt smaller when compared to the price increases that occurred. In addition, due to rising prices of goods and services, the value of the saved money to lower / down, when compared to before the inflation.
But the government also has certain ways to tackle inflation. These methods include:
1. Monetary Policy
Diskoto Politics (Political money is tight): bank raised interest rates so that the money supply can be reduced.
Open market policy: the central bank sells bonds or securities to the capital market to absorb money from the public and the central bank sells securities to suppress growth of the money supply so that the money supply can be reduced and the rate of inflation may be lower.
Improved cash ratio: Raise cash reserves in the bank so that the amount of money banks can lend to customers / public to be reduced. This means it can reduce the amount of money in circulation.
2. Fiscal Policy
Organize receipts and expenditures. Government spending that does not add to the budget deficit is not.
Raise taxes. By raising taxes, consumers will reduce their consumption as part of their income to pay taxes.
3. Non Monetary Policy
Encourage employers to raise their production.
Pressing the wage rate.
Government oversight and at the same price set maximum prices.
The government made the distribution directly.
Poverty is severe inflation (hyper inflation) reached by way of doing sneering (cutting of the currency). Senering This has been done by the government in the 1960's when inflation reached 650%. The government cut the value of the currency denominations of Rp. 1000.00 to Rp. 1.00.
Policies related to output. The increase in output can reduce the rate of inflation. The increase in the number of outputs can be achieved for example by reduction of import duty policy that imports tend to increase. Increasing the number of goods in the country tends to lower the price.
Pricing policies and indexing. This is done by determining the ceiling price.
4. Real Sector Policies
Government to stimulate banks to give more specific credit to MSMEs (Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises). Examples BRI bank launched this year as Microyear.
Pressing the flow of imported goods by raising taxes.
Stimulate people to use domestic products.
While inflation could be positive or negative, on the Indonesian economy, but it would be nice if the economic situation in Indonesia remains stable. So no one can get double benefits, while others experienced economic slump. Inflation prevention should be done as soon as possible before the bad inflation. Required skills in observing the government's economic conditions that occur at this time. Coupled with the lifestyle of the people of Indonesia tend consumptive. Not infrequently it lead to inflation. Hopefully someday Indonesia's economy could be better and will not cause gaps community.
http://wartawarga.gunadarma.ac.id/2011/03/httptwentytwopm-wordpress-com/
Since the advent of money as a medium of exchange authorized the presence of money has a crucial role in every human life. This can be proven from how every human being in need of money as a medium of exchange for goods and services required to fulfill his life, as an example, is how we need the money to finance health care, insurance, education, entertainment fulfilling the needs of everyday life and examples others can be found in everyday behavior. Apart from the need for money then on the other hand there are other aspects of the money itself that is inflation.
Inflation is defined as an increase in the overall prices of goods and is usually measured by the consumer price index. From the definition of the concept of inflation is reflected in that only occur when there is increase in goods as a whole and not just some stuff just so that if there is inflation, the value of the purchasing power of money will be drained owned or reduced because of rising prices of goods. Based on previous understanding crystallized that inflation has negative aspects and needs to be maintained at a certain level (2% -3%), but also has the benefit of actual inflation (oportunity) seen from the perspective of international finance as it relates or related to or a negative surplus of the balance of trade so writing This purpose is to explore the positive and negative inflation on the trade balance.
One item of the balance of payments is heading the trade balance comprising two subpost ie exports and imports. Further that the export and import element is an element that is crucial for the calculation of GDP (gross national product). Inflation can largely resulting from excess demand over supply or caused by the increase in the cost of the encouragement. But regardless of the cause of inflation is contained implicitly meaning that inflation is a challenge and an opportunity, which is a challenge because it takes the help of the government by playing two instruments, namely monetary policy, by raising the rank of interest and withdraw the money supply to the hands of the people so that it will be an adjustment price (invisible hand) and fiscal policy is to raise taxes to reduce revenue and profit as well as going on the invisible hand, while saying the opportunity as it relates to favorable exchange rates and exports.
As said at the beginning that inflation has a negative aspect as it will deplete the purchasing power of money owned so much allows people to save money on financial institutions because the government will respond by raising interest rates and favorable customer manabung financial institutions. Another aspect of inflation that would lead to fluctuations in exchange rates and stock prices overall. Or in other words that inflation will lead to increased corporate costs (direct material costs, direct labor costs and overhead costs) that affect the company's operating profit and if a company has a high leverage it will drain a net profit after tax. With rising costs, the company will then automatically raise the price of products and services to maintain its profits and if persists in the short and long term it will increase the probability the buyer to move to a competitor and this information will be circulated widely and affect investor perception that the firm's current performance and outlook is not good so it will respond by releasing shares held and there was a correction in the stock price.

Further worsening the perception that the investors and affect a particular stock index (JCI), the decline will affect the perception of foreign investors about the prospects of the company's performance in the future and the impact on the action release domestic company stocks and the rupiah exchange from the sale of shares with dollars and lead to increased demand for the dollar and ended the strengthening dollar and weakening rupiah. But despite some negative effect of inflation, the existence of inflation also has a chance if they can be put to good use and as stated earlier the chances of inflation is closely related to aspects of export and import.
Reasoning positive impact on exports and imports inflation occurs because when the increase in the price of goods to be exported then the domestic currency tends to depreciate so that the price of goods for export tend to be cheaper, but it requires several conditions must be met: (1) input costs to produce these goods have a low proportion of imports or production inputs obtained from a domestic and a few are derived from imports, (2) the current exchange rate shocks as inflation then companies have a fleet of good marketing and sales . To clarify the understanding of these two terms is then presented as an example below.
"Initial conditions before the shock rate the selling price of goods A of Rp5000 per product rate Rp5000 / $ and if there rupiah depreciation to Rp10000 / $ and if the company is able to maintain the selling price Rp5000 the selling price of the dollar change of $ 1 per product to $ 0.5 per product. This example looks simple but when these two conditions are met then the company will not experience increases in costs that affect operating profit and sales force and marketing still exist then the demand can still be obtained and profitable profits to be obtained ".
Examples and explanations in the previous section looks simple because it is excluding taxes and other relevant costs into the analysis, but apart from that it is still there because of its relevance as it is known that the cost element has a vital role in acquiring a profitable sale in the condition that the company inflasipun companies could still exist as long as the company does not have a dependency on imported inputs or raw materials but instead received input or raw materials from domestic and to achieve this it is necessary to support the government specially for the proper management focus and true will and support of all domestic agricultural institutions and communities to optimize domestic agriculture and long-term impact on the competitive advantage of the Indonesian state.

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Unknown Article, Inflasi

Disclaimer

This blog is a personal blog written and edited by me. This blog accepts forms of cash advertising, sponsorship, paid insertions or other forms of compensation.

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Jakarta Ekopolitan

ENVIRONMENT living in Jakarta were increasingly lost its capacity. After the flood that always come every time it rains, now Jakarta faced other threats are no less daunting.

Two weeks ago, the road that connects the central economic Tanjung Priok to downtown Jakarta, sinkhole as deep as 7 meters along 103 meters.

Not only RE Martadinata that ambles. Muara Angke Fish Harbour wharf, North Jakarta, earlier this week, as well as deep as 20 cm ambles along 167 meters.

Two events amblesnya ground in North Jakarta showed more strongly than had been previously realized that Jakarta was to proceed towards the sink.

Actual, the process is not a new phenomenon that surprised and came suddenly. Government and citizens of the capital already know the ecological disaster that manifest or latent continue to take place every day.

For a long time, we know that weekly and even daily flood happens every time it rains. Rob in North Jakarta continues to take place every year. Also known to have long continued land subsidence here and there. Tilt buildings on Jalan MH Thamrin and Jalan Sudirman had been going on since a few years ago.

The experts have also confirmed that the Jakarta area, especially North Jakarta, has dropped 18-26 cm per year. On the other hand, sea levels have continued to rise even as high as 0.8 cm per year.

Therefore, if RE Jalan Muara Angke Martadinata and ambles dock, it's the next logical step from the disaster that is increasingly real and substantial impact.

Ironically, despite knowledge of the ecological plight that has expanded awareness to prevent and slow shrinking it even disappears. Jakarta residents increasingly do not care about the symptoms of a sick environment.

Residential development, offices and shopping centers that bypass the general plan layout and spend the green zone still ongoing. All running style business as usual. Amblesnya RE Martadinata and Muara Angke was ultimately deemed ordinary events, such as floods usually come every time it rains. This attitude is very dangerous indeed.

Because of that, it's time to Jakarta to impose harsh environmental law in order to adopt the Capital ekopolitan regime, a regime that mega rekindle with emphasis on ecological principles. The central government must take steps to follow up the transfer of pressure to reduce the burden of the state capital of Jakarta that could not be borne. Without it, Jakarta is still going to sink.

Jakarta is screaming with the carrying capacity of the passing threshold. If allowed to continue, which will take place is the ecological apocalypse.

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Unknown Article, Opini

ISLAM IN ANDALUSIA

Before the arrival of Islam, is a royal Hispania Iberian region dominated by the Christian Visigoths. In the year 711 AD, the Umayyad troops, mostly the Moors of Northwest Africa, invaded Hispania led by General Tariq ibn Ziyad, and under the orders of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus. 

These troops landed at Gibraltar on April 30 and continue heading north. After defeating King Roderic of the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete (711 M), the rule of Islam continued to grow until the year 719 AD Only regions Galicia, Basque and Asturias are not subject to the authority of Islam. After that, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees to conquer France, but he is stopped by the Franks in the battle of Tours (732 AD). Umayyad Muslim controlled areas are called the province of Al-Andalus, comprising Spain, Portugal and southern France is called now. 

A. Political Developments 

At first, al-Andalus controlled by a trustee Yusuf al-Fihri (governor) appointed by the Caliph in Damascus, with the usual three-year term. But in 740an AD, there was a civil war that led to the rule of Caliph. And in the year 746 AD, Yusuf al-Fihri won the civil war, became a ruler who is not tied to the government in Damascus. 

In the year 750 AD, the sons Abbasids overthrow the Umayyads in Damascus, and seized control of the regions of Arabia. But in the year 756 AD, Abdurrahman I (Ad-Dakhil) depose Yusuf Al-Fihri, and became rulers of Cordoba with the Amir of Cordoba. Wahid refused to submit to the newly established Abbasid Caliphate, as Abbasid forces had killed most of his family. 

He reigned for 30 years, but has a weak power in Al-Andalus and he tried to suppress the resistance of the supporters of Al-Fihri and Abbasid caliphs. 

Over the next half century, his descendants succeeded him as Amir of Cordoba, who has written over all the power of Al-Andalus and sometimes covering western North Africa. In fact, the power of Amir of Cordoba, particularly in areas adjacent to the Christians, often experience fluctuating politics, it depends on the skill of the ruling Amir. Amir Abdullah bin Muhammad even just having power over Cordoba alone. 

Abdullah's grandson, Abdurrahman III, succeeded him in the year 912 AD, and quickly restore the Umayyad rule of Al-Andalus and North Africa and even the west. In the year 929 AD he raised himself as Caliph, thus emirate now has a position equivalent to the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad and Shiite caliphate in Tunis. 

B. The period of the Caliphate 

Andalusia - the Muslim Spain was occupied at the time of Caliph Al-Walid rahimahullah (705-715 AD), one of the Umayyad caliphate, based in Damascus, where the Muslims had previously been mengusasi North Africa. In the process of the Spanish conquest, there are three heroes of Islam can be said that the most meritorious Tharif ibn Malik, Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullahum ajma'in. 

Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigator. He crossed the strait that lies between Morocco and the European continent with the army, five hundred of them were horsemen, they boarded four ships provided by Julian. 

In the raid Tharif not get against it. He won and returned to North Africa to bring the spoils were not few in number. Encouraged by the success Tharif and the crisis that occurred in the body of the ruling Visigothic kingdom in Spain at the time, as well as a big boost to get the spoils of war, Musa ibn Nushair in 711 AD sent troops to Spain as many as 7000 people under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad vol. 

Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah more widely known as the Spanish conquerors when they were larger and more noticeable results. His army consisted of mostly ethnic Berbers supported by Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah and some Arabs who sent the Caliph al-Walid vol. The troops then crossed the Channel under Tariq ibn Ziyad led vol. A mountain of Tariq and his army first landed and set up his army, known as the Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq). 

By mastering this area, then opened the door widely to enter Spain. In the battle at a place called Bakkah, King Roderick can be defeated. From there rahimahullah Tariq and his army continue to conquer important cities such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (capital of Gothic empire at that time). Before Tariq rahimahullah managed to conquer the city of Toledo, he requested additional troops to Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah in North Africa. Moses sends additional forces personnel of 5000, so the number of troops entirely Thariq 12,000 people. This amount is not comparable to the Gothic army much larger, 100,000. 

The first victory achieved by Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah make way for the conquest of the region more broadly. To that end, Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah feel the need to get involved in the battle arena with the intention of helping the struggle Tariq. With a great army, he set out across the strait, and the city passed one by one can be conquered. After Moses conquered rahimahullah Sidonia, Karmona, Seville and Merida and beat Gothic monarch, Theodomir in Orihuela, he joined Tariq at Toledo. Furthermore, they had mastered all important cities in Spain, including the northern part, from Zaragoza to Navarre. 

Subsequent territorial expansion wave appears in the reign of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz rahimahullah H/717 year 99 AD This time the target is intended to control the area around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Leadership troops entrusted to al-Samah rahimahullah, but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he himself was assassinated in 102 H. Furthermore, the chief submitted to Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi vol. With his troops, he attacked the city Bordreu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, between the towns of Tours Poiter and that he was arrested by Charles Martel, so the invasion of France failed and led troops to retreat back to Spain. 

After that, there are still attacks, such as the Avirignon year 734 AD, to Lyon in 743 AD, and the islands located in the Mediterranean Sea, Majorca, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and some of Sicilia also fell into the hands of the Islamic Umayyad era. The second wave of the invasion of the largest Muslim movement started at the beginning of the 8th century AD, has been reaching out across Spain and the wider Middle French far-reaching and important parts of Italy. Victories achieved Muslims look so easy. It can not be separated from the external and internal factors are favorable. 

What is meant by external factors is contained in a condition of Spain itself. At the time of the conquest of Spain by the Muslims, the social, political, and economic country is in a sad state. Politically, the Spanish territory torn apart and divided into several small countries. Simultaneously Gothic rulers to be intolerant towards religious sects adopted by the authorities, namely the flow Monophysites, especially against people of other religions, Judaism. Judaism which is the biggest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized in the Christian faith. Are not willing to be tortured, and brutally murdered. 

People were divided into a class system, so the situation is clouded by poverty, oppression, and lack of equal rights. In situations like that, the oppressed await Liberator interpreter, and the interpreter of its release they found Muslims. In connection with that Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) and services in terms of materials, togetherness, justice, and prosperity, neighbors in peninsular Spain is in a deplorable state under the rule of an iron fist ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in turmoil, which inflicts the suffering of the people. As a result of cruel treatment, the colonies became an important Jewish places of resistance and rebellion. Divisions of Spain's intervention helped the success of Islam in the year 711 AD The split was very much coraknya, and existed long before the Gothic kingdom stand. 

Political divisions exacerbate the economic situation. When Islam came to Spain, the local economy in a state of paralysis. In fact, when Spain was under the rule of the Roman (Byzantine), thanks to the fertility of the soil, agriculture thrive. Similarly, mining, industry and trade as it is supported by good transport facilities. But after Spain was under the rule of the kingdom of the Goths, crippled the economy and social welfare decreases. Hektaran left stranded without the tilled soil, several factories were closed, and between the region and other regions hardest-hit due to the roads not being treated. 

The poor state of social, economic, and religious was mainly caused by the chaotic political situation. The worst condition occurs in the reign of King Roderick, the last king was defeated Goths Islam. Early destruction of the kingdom when King Roderick Ghoth is the capital of the country moved from Seville to Toledo, while Witiza, who was a ruler over the Toledo area, dismissed offhand. This incurred the wrath of the state and Achila oppas, brother and son Witiza. Both then gather up the strength to overthrow Roderick. They went to North Africa and joined the Muslims. 

Meanwhile, there is also a conflict between the Queen Julian Roderick, the former ruler of Septah. Julian also joined the Muslims in North Africa and support the efforts of Muslims to master Spanish, Julian even lend four ships used by Tharif, Tariq and Musa Rahimahumullah. 

It is advantageous that the Islamic army soldiers Roderick consisting of oppressed slaves no longer have the spirit of war Additionally, the Jews who had been depressed also have fellowship and provide support for the struggle of the Muslims. 

As is the internal factor is a condition that is contained in the body of rulers, leaders tokon-Islam fighters and soldiers involved in the conquest of Spain in particular. The leaders are powerful figures, army compact, unified and confident. They were competent, courageous and steadfast in the face of every issue. Equally important is shown by the Islamic Army of Islam, tolerance, brotherhood, and mutual help. Religious tolerance and brotherhood contained in the person of the Muslims that led to the Spanish population to welcome the presence of Islam there. 

C. Development of Civilization 

Muslims in Spain have achieved a glorious triumph, they gain many achievements, even the effect brought Europe and the world to progress more complex, especially in terms of intellectual progress. 

In a period of more than seven centuries of Muslim rule in Spain, Muslims have achieved success in there. Many achievements they earn, even bringing European influence, and then bring the world to a more complex progress. 

Intellectual Progress 

Spain is a fertile country. Fertility is high economic income generation and in turn produce a lot of thinkers. 

Public Islamic Spain is a plural society consisting of: 

- Arab communities (North and South) 

- Al-Muwalladun (Spaniards who converted to Islam) 

- Barbarians (Muslims from North Africa) 

- Al-Shaqalibah (German mercenaries were sold to Muslim rulers) 

- Jewish 

- Christian Arab Muzareb cultured 

- Christians who are opposed to the presence of Islam 

All of the community, except the last, giving shares to the formation of the intellectual culture that gave birth to the Resurrection Andalus Scientific, literary, and physical development in Andalusia - Spain. 

1. Philosophy 

Islam in Spain has recorded a single sheet of brilliant cultural history of Islam in the stretch. He serves as a pedestrian bridge through which the Greco-Arabic science to Europe in the 12th century. Interest in philosophy and science were developed in the 9th century AD during the reign of the Umayyad ruler of the 5th, Abdurrahman ibn Muhammad (832-886 AD). 

On the initiative of al-Hakam (961-976 AD), the works of scientific and philosophical imported from the East in large numbers, so Cordova with university libraries and universities are able to compete with Baghdad as a major center of science in the Islamic world. What is done by the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain is preparing to give birth to great philosophers in the later. 

The final part of the 12th century AD saw the rise of a follower of Aristotle's largest arena of philosophy in Islam, which Ibn Rushd of Cordova. He was born in 1126 AD and died in 1198 AD His trademark is the accuracy in interpreting the texts of Aristotle and prudent wrestle chronic problems of philosophy and religious harmony. He was also with his Bidayah jurist al-Mujtahid. 

2. Science 

IImu-medical science, music, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and others are also developing well. Abbas ibn Famas luminary of chemistry and astronomy. He was first to discover the manufacture of glass stones. Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash known in the science of astronomy. He can determine the timing of the eclipses of the sun and determine how long. He also managed to create a modern binoculars to determine the distance between the solar system and the stars. Ahmad ibn Ibas of Cordova is an expert in the field of medicine. Umm al-Hasan bint Abi Ja'far and al-Haafiz sisters are two of the woman's medical expert. 

In the field of history and geography, the western Muslim region produced many famous thinkers, Ibn Jubair of Valencia (1145-1228 AD) wrote about the Muslim countries and the Mediterranean and Sicilian Ibn Batuthah of Tangier (1304-1377 AD) and the Chinese reaching Pasai Ocean . Ibn al-Khatib (1317-1374 AD) compiled a history of Granada, while Ibn Khaldun of Tunis is formulating the philosophy of history. All of the above historian residing in Spain, which is then moved to Africa. That's part of the big names in science. 

3. Fiqh 

In the field of fiqh, Islamic Spain known as the adherents of the Maliki school. Who introduced this school there is Abdurrahman ibn Ziad. Further development is determined by the Qadi Yahya ibn during Abdurrahman Ibn Hisham. Fiqh other experts such as Abu Bakr ibn al-Quthiyah, Munzir Ibn al-Sa'id Ibn Hazm Baluthi and famous. 

4. Music and Arts 

In the field of music and sound, Islamic Spain achieved brilliance with the character of al-Hasan Ibn Nafi that dijiluki Zaryab. Every time hosted by meeting and banquet, Zaryab has always demonstrated his skill. He is also well known as a composer. Science dimiliknya it down to their children both male and female, and also to the slaves, so that his fame spread. 

5. Language and Literature 

Arabic has become the language of administration in Islamic rule in Spain. It is acceptable to Muslims and non-Muslims. In fact, a native of Spain menomor emphasized their native language. They are also a lot of skilled and proficient in the Arabic language, both speaking and grammar skills. They include: Ibn Sayyidih, Aljiyah author Ibn Malik Ibn Khuruf, Ibn al-Hajj, Abu Ali al-Isybili, Abu al-Hasan Ibn Usfur, and Abu Hayyan al-Ghamathi. Along with the progress of the language, literature sprung up, like Al-'IQD Ibn al-Farid Rabbih Abd al-Dzakhirahji Mahasin Ahl al-Jazirah by Ibn Bassam, Kitab al-Qalaid the work of al-Fath ibn Khaqan, and many others

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efforts to improve the quality of education through teacher competency

A. preliminary

In an effort to improve the quality of national education, government, especially through the Ministry of Education continue to seek to various changes and reform our education system. One of the efforts that have been and are being carried out, ie factors related to the teacher. Birth of Law. 14 of 2005 on Teachers and Lecturers and Government Regulation. 19 Year 2005 on National Education Standards, essentially a government policy that contains within it the government's efforts to reform and improve the quality of teachers in Indonesia. Fullan cited by Suyanto and Hisham (2000) argues that "educational change depends on what teachers do and think ...". The opinion suggests that change and reform the education system relies heavily on "what teachers do and think". or in other words, depends on the mastery of teacher competence.

If we observe more about the realities of the current teacher competence presumably still diverse. Danim (2002) revealed that one feature of the crisis is a professor of education in Indonesia has not been able to demonstrate performance (work performance) is adequate. This shows that the performance of teachers not fully supported by an adequate degree of mastery of competencies, therefore there is need for a comprehensive effort to improve the competence of teachers. This article will explain what it is about teacher competence and how efforts to improve the competence of teachers views of the role of the school principal. Presumably in the hope this paper can serve as a reflection for teachers and other parties with an interest in education.

B. Teacher Competency Itself

What is a competency? Moqvist (2003) argued that "competency has been defined in the light of actual circumstances Relating to the individual and work. Meanwhile, Trainning Agency as presented Holmes (1992) in Moqvist (2003) states that: "A competence is a description of something roomates a person who works in a given occupational area should be Able to do. It is a description of an action, behavior or outcome roomates a person should be Able to demonstrate. "

From the second the opinion above we can draw a red thread that competence is basically a picture of what is supposed to do (be Able to do) a person in a job, in the form of activities, behaviors and outcomes that should be shown or indicated. To be able to do (be Able to do) something in his work, of course, one must have the capacity (ability) in the form of knowledge (knowledge), attitudes (attitude) and skills (skills) in accordance with the field work.

Referring to the above definition of competence, the competence of the teacher in this case can be interpreted as a description of what it is supposed to do one teacher for his job, either in the form of activities, behavior and results can be shown.

Furthermore, as cited by Joni Suyanto and Hisham (2000) suggests three types of teacher competence, namely:

1. Professional competence; having extensive knowledge of the subject areas they teach, select and use a variety of teaching methods in the teaching-learning process convening.

2. Social competence; able to communicate well with students, fellow teachers, and society.

3. Personal competence, ie has a solid personality and exemplary. Thus, a teacher will be able to perform the role of a leader: ing ngarso sung Tulada, ing intermediate Mangun intention, tut wuri handayani

Meanwhile, in the perspective of the national education policy, the government has formulated four types of teacher competence as specified in the Explanation of Government Regulation No. 19 Year 2005 on National Education Standards, namely:

1. Pedagogical competence is an ability in the management of learners which include: (a) understanding or insight into the foundation of education, (b) understanding of learners, (c) development of curriculum / syllabus, (d) learning design, (e) the implementation of an educational learning and dialogue; (f) evaluation of learning outcomes, and (g) the development of a variety of learners to actualize its potential.

2. Competence personality is a personality capabilities: (a) stable, (b) stable, (c) adult, (d) the wise and prudent; (e) authority, (f) morality, (g) a role model for students and society; (h) evaluating its own performance, and (i) to develop themselves in a sustainable manner.

3. Social competence is an educator's ability as a society to: (a) communicate orally and in writing, (b) use information and communication technology functionally, (c) interact effectively with students, fellow teachers, staff, parents / guardians learners, and (d) hanging out in a dignified manner with the surrounding community.

4. Professional competence is the ability to master the material is broad and deep learning which include: (a) concept, structure, and methods of science / technology / art shade / coherent with the teaching materials, (b) teaching materials are in the school curriculum, (c) relationships between concepts related subjects, (d) the application of scientific concepts in everyday life, and (e) in a professional competition in a global context while preserving national values ​​and culture.

In comparison, of the National Board for Professional Teaching Skill (2002) has defined competency standards for teachers in the United States, which became the basis for teachers to get certified teachers, with the formulation of What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do, involves a series of five major propositions , namely:

1. Teachers are Committed to Students and Their Learning which includes: (a) teacher appreciation of individual differences of students, (b) teachers' understanding of the development of student learning, (c) treatment of teachers to all students fairly, and (d) the teacher's mission to expand horizon of thinking students.

2. Teachers Know the Subjects They Teach and How to Teach Those Subjects to Students include: (a) teacher appreciation understanding of subject matter for dikreasikan, compiled and linked with other subjects, (b) the ability of teachers to deliver course material (c) develop efforts to acquire knowledge in various ways (multiple paths).

3. Teachers are Responsible for Managing and Monitoring Student Learning include: (a) the use of different methods in achieving learning objectives, (b) make the learning process in a variety of settings groups (group setting), the ability to provide a reward (reward) for the success of students, (c ) assess student progress on a regular basis, and (d) awareness of the main goals of learning.

4. Teachers Think Systematically About Their Practice and Learn from Experience includes: (a) Teachers continually examine ourselves to pick the best decisions, (b) teachers ask advice from others and doing research on education to improve teaching practices.

5. Teachers are Members of Learning Communities include: (a) teacher contributes to school effectiveness by collaborating with other professionals, (b) teachers working with older students, (c) teachers can take advantage of a variety of community resources.

Essentially, the three above opinion does not indicate a difference of principle. The difference is only in how pengelompokkannya. Fill in the details pedagodik competencies delivered by Ministry of Education, according to Joni Raka already teramu in professional competence. While NBPTS does not recognize the existence of grouping types of competence, but directly elaborated on aspects of teachers' skills should be mastered. In line with the global challenges of life, roles and responsibilities of teachers in the future will be more complex, so it requires teachers to always make various improvements and adjustments mastery competence. Teachers need to be more dynamic and creative in developing student learning. Teachers in the future no longer be the only one of the most well informed on a variety of information and knowledge that is developing and interacting with humans in the universe. In the future, teachers are not the only people who are more proficient in the middle of their students. If teachers do not understand the mechanisms and patterns of dissemination of information so quickly, he will slumped professionally. If this happens, it will lose the trust of both students, parents and the community. To face the challenge of professionalism, teachers need to be anticipatory and proactive thinking. This means that teachers have to do an update of its science and knowledge continuously.

In addition, future teachers must understand the research to support the effectiveness of the implementation of learning, so that the results support the teacher does not get stuck to the practice of learning by assuming they have been effective, but in reality it turned off the creativity of the students. So also, with the support of cutting edge research allows teachers to conduct lessons vary from year to year, adapted to the context of the development of science and technology progress.

C. Principal Role in Improving Teacher Competency

So that the educational process can be run effectively and efficiently, teachers are required to have sufficient competence, both in terms of the type and content. However, if we dive deeper into the content contained on any kind of competence, as presented by experts and in government policy perspective, it seems to be a competent teacher is not something that is simple to realize and enhance the competencies of teachers needed a genuine effort truly and comprehensively.

One effort that can be done is through the optimization of the principal's role. Anwar and Amir (2000) argues that "the principal as the manager has the task of developing the performance of personnel, especially to increase the professional competence of teachers." It should be underlined that professional competence is here, not only related to the control of matter alone, but includes all types and browse the content of competency as described above.

In the perspective of the national education policy (Ministry of Education, 2006), there are seven principal role is, as: (1) educator (educator), (2) managers, (3) administrators, (4) supervisor (the supervisor), (5) leader (leader), (6) the creator of the work climate, and (7) entrepreneurs.

Referring to the seven principal roles as presented by the Education Ministry on the above, the following section describes the relationship between the principal's role to increase teacher competence.

1. The school principal as a manager. In managing personnel, one of the tasks that must be done is to carry out the principal maintenance activities and professional development of teachers. In this case, the principal should be facilitated and provide ample opportunity for the teachers to be able to undertake professional development through education and training activities, both held at the school, such as: MGMP / MGP school level, in-house training, professional discussion and so on, or through education and training activities outside of school, such as: the opportunity to continue their education or participate in various activities organized training others.

2. Principals as educators (teachers). Of teaching and learning is at the core of the educational process and teachers are the main implementers and developers in the school curriculum. Principals who demonstrate commitment and focus on curriculum development and teaching and learning activities at the school will of course very concerned about the level of competency of teachers, as well as will always strive to facilitate and encourage teachers to continually improve their competence, so that teaching and learning activities can run effectively and efficiently.

3. Head of the school as an administrator. Particularly with regard to financial management, that to achieve improved teacher competence can not be separated from the cost factor. How big is the school can allocate the budget increase teacher competency will affect the level of competence of the teacher. Therefore, the principal should be able to allocate adequate budget for efforts to improve teacher competence.

4. The school principal as a supervisor. To determine the extent to which teachers are able to carry out the study, principals need to periodically carry out supervision activities, which can be done through classroom visits to observe directly the learning process, especially in the selection and use of methods, media use and engagement in the learning process (Mulyasa , 2003). From the results of this supervision, as well as excellence is known weakness of teachers in implementing learning, mastery level of teacher competence is concerned, further attempted solutions, coaching and follow-up so that the teacher can correct certain deficiencies while maintaining excellence in implementing learning. Jones et al. as presented by Danim (2002) argues that "the face that contains the curriculum changes are quite large in purpose, content, teaching methods and evaluation, it is natural that the teachers expect advice and guidance from their principals." From this expression, meaning that the principal should really master of the school curriculum. Impossible a school principal can provide advice and guidance to the teacher, while he himself did not master it well

5. Principal as leader (leader). Principal's leadership style as if that can foster creativity as well as to encourage suburkan to improving teacher competence? In theory at least we know the two leadership styles of leadership are task oriented leadership and people-oriented leadership. In order to improve the competence of teachers, a school principal can implement both leadership styles are appropriate and flexible, adapted to the conditions and needs. Leadership is associated with a person's personality and the personality of the principal as a leader will be reflected in the properties as barikut: (1) honest, (2) self-confidence, (3) responsibility, (4) risk-taking and decision, (5) high-minded, (6) emotional stability, and (7) model (Mulyasa, 2003).

6. Principals as the creator of the work climate. Culture and conducive working environment will allow each teacher more motivated to demonstrate the superior performance, accompanied by efforts to improve their competence. Therefore, in an effort to create a culture and climate conducive work, the principal shall observe the following principles: (1) the teachers will work harder when doing activities interesting and fun, (2) the purpose of activities should be drawn up with clear and informed to the teachers so they know the purpose of her work, the teacher may also be involved in the preparation of these objectives, (3) the teacher should always be informed of every job, (4) gift giving is better than punishment, but any time penalties are also needed, (5) try to meet the needs of socio-psycho-physical teachers, so as to obtain satisfaction (modified from thinking about Principal Mulayasa as Motivator (Mulyasa, 2003).

7. The school principal as an entrepreneur. In applying the principles of kewirausaan associated with increased competency of teachers, the school principal should be able to create reform, comparative advantage, as well as take advantage of opportunities. The school principal with a strong attitude kewirauhasaan will dare to make innovative changes in the school, including changes in matters related to the learning process of students and their teacher competence. The extent to which principals can realize the above roles, directly or indirectly, can contribute to improving teacher competence, which in turn can bring an effect on the quality of education in schools.

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